Footprints

1. What is your ecological footprint? (That is, if everyone lived like you, how many earths would it take to support the world population?) 5.76 Earths

2. As the world population grows, how will this impact the amount of resources (food, electricity, water, etc.) each person can consume and still remain within the sustainability of our planet? That is, what lifestyle changes will we need to make in order to ensure there is enough food and energy to sustain everyone? As the population grows, each person using these resources so frequently and a lot more use of them, there will be a more demand for all of these to survive.

3. What is the IPCC? What does it do? Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, The IPCC is the world’s leading authority on the science of climate change

4. Which climates require the most energy and the least energy on average to live in? (Give an example of a country for each) The U.S. uses more energy than any other country, is the biggest carbon dioxide (CO2) greenhouse gas emitter of all the industrialized nations, and second only to China in overall global emissions. It is also the largest and fastest growing developed nation worldwide.

About 80 percent of China’s electricity is produced by plants burning coal, which releases more heat-trapping gases than most major fuel sources for power generation.

5. What is the Climate Action Network? What does it do? The Climate Action Network (CAN) is a worldwide network of over 365 Non- Governmental Organizations (NGOs) working to promote government and individual action to limit human-induced climate change to ecologically sustainable levels

6. How do energy efficient appliances, line-drying your clothes and using compact fluorescent light bulbs each help to reduce carbon emissions? But small things add up. Energy efficient appliances use 2 to 10 times less energy for the same level of functionality. Line drying clothes saves 3 to 4 kilowatt hours per load – about 5 pounds of carbon dioxide. Compact fluorescent bulbs use four times less energy and last eight times longer than incandescent bulbs.

7. Why are compact urban living and rural living more energy efficient than sprawling suburbs? Most Americans live in urban areas, forming huge hot spots of energy consumption. But while rural residents use less energy overall greater self reliance on local food, and water resources and fewer short trips on congested roadways lead to lower energy requirements relative to sprawling suburbs.

8. What are carbon offsets? It’s a financial instrument aimed at a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases. The money is invested in projects that reduce carbon emissions including renewable energy, forest protection, and energy efficiency projects endorsed by leading conservation organizations.

9. Why does eating meat require more energy than eating plants? It’s the process to slaughter the livestock, to keep it chilled and fresh from bacteria’s

10. How do food miles and food processing and packaging play a role in a person’s ecological footprint? How do personal and community gardens help alleviate this? If everybody would help by eating more fruits and vegetables rather than more meats, it would help by not as much of demand for slaughter of livestock and more demand for fresh fruits and vegetables. Buying fresh local foods from farmers markets and other locally owned sources or natural foods markets reduces these impacts. A study shows if homes or communities have their own garden they can save $500 to $1200 worth of produce per year to a family's diet – a big difference for low-income families.

11. What is a “food footprint?” What is a “housing footprint?” is based on the "ecological footprint". It is the part of the 'Ecological Footprint' that is due to food production. This is a measure of the environmental impacts of food productionis based on the "ecological footprint". It is the part of the 'Ecological Footprint' that is due to food production. This is a measure of the environmental impacts of food productionis based on the "ecological footprint". It is the part of the 'Ecological Footprint' that is due to food production. This is a measure of the environmental impacts of food production is based on the "ecological footprint". It is the part of the 'Ecological Footprint' that is due to food production. This is a measure of the environmental impacts of food production It is based on ecological footprint, due to food production. This is a measure of the environmental impacts of food production. Household water use also takes water from other beneficial uses such as irrigation or in-stream flow for fish and wildlife.

12. What construction and design features contribute to green buildings? It is practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle. This practice expands and complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort

13. Finish the following statement: Energy is required to delivery and treatment fresh water. We can reduce our water footprint by installing water saving features and adopting water conservation habits.

14. Describe two benefits of “green” cleaning products. Greening your work environment saves money and resources while keeping employees healthier. It also lets people know that these products are helping the environment free from harmful pollutions.

15. What is planned obsolescence? How can we counter it? A manufacturing decision by a company to make consumer products in such a way that they become out-of-date or useless within a known time period. To avoid this, by buying products that don’t have a short lifespan. The faster we buy new items, the faster we deplete resources and the more likely it is that we are exceeding the Earth’s regenerative capacity.

16. What are the five environmental and economic benefits of recycling? By processing used materials into new products to prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution and water pollution and lower greenhouse gas emissions

17. Click the “Reduce your footprint” link at the end of the survey and write a one-paragraph plan for how you intend to reduce your footprint. Your plan should include a list of behaviors you are committed to changing. Ideally, I would like you to select at least one behavior from each of the seven categories on the “Reduce your footprint” page that you are going to work on.

I can help reduce my footprint by riding my bike to work instead of driving, it would take me longer time to work but it would save on the environment as well as a money expense. I already use energy saver light bulbs as well as a washer/dryer, but I could possibly look into weather proofing my home. With my family they need the lights on for everything even when its brightly sunny outside, so im constantly turning off all the lights when not needed, so I can inform them to save the planet and not use so much energy of having every single light on when not needed, it saves the planet as well on the electricity bill! We already recycle cans and plastic goods as well as glass products, but I wasn’t aware of the batteries so I can start recycling those from now on too.

Humans: Babies by Design

I don't think people should alter the way of how babies are formed, but it might be a good way to help rid your future child from diseases. There are so many different types of diseases out there and once your child is born and has one of them and you look back and think i could have prevented this. But its not right to change of how God brings a child into the world.

Darwin:Orgin of Species

During the 5 mya years the classic pollenpeeper bird population was cut by 10% due to a bad storm. Its habitat was destroyed by the storm, wrecking up their nests and food supply. They were constantly being preyed by other species. The present pollenpeeper bird competition for food supply is still limited and is still being preyed upon other predators.

Why you can read this- and why the chimp cant

Even though chimps and humans are so much alike, the brain cells in humans and chimps differ greatly. But the gene activity in blood and liver cells were alike in comparison. With evolution, the acceleration of human brains made changes in gene expressions.

Humans, Chimps not as closely related as thought?

For a long time scientists used DNA from humans and chimps and was closely related in genetic material. Several studies showed of how these two species could be so close in DNA. When they did a study of human and mice they werent close in percentage as a chimp. DNA proves that humans and chimps are closely related to each other, but not the gorilla. Even though they are quite compariable. Humans catch more diseases compared to the chimp.

Humans: Riddle of the Bones

1. From a song "Lucy in the sky with diamonds" shes a primate

2. Primates

3. same jaw, teeth, and braincases, upright walking

4. 3.6 million, 3.2, 3.2, 3.0

5. they are land apes, toe bones dont curve forward toward the heel

6. wide pelvic

7. chimp sized brain cavity

Humans: Orgins of humankind

1. Homo sapiens
2. Homo neanderthalensis
3. Homo heidelbergensis
4. Homo erectus
5. Homo Habilus
6. Australopithecus garhi

Survival: Microbe clock

A. In 1997 more than half of pneumococcus bacteria strains were evolving resistance or became resistant to penicillin. A search for an alternative antibiotics to treat illnesses been only marginally successful.

B. Total cells: 314,062
Mutations: 1339
Cells divide: 13,524

Change: Deep Time

1. Atomsphere forms
2. Earth's core forms
3. First living organisms evolve
4. First eukaryotic cells evolve
5. First multicellular organisms evolve
6. Ozone layer forms
7. First chordates evolve
8. First land plants evolve
9. First land animals evolve
10. First land vertebrates evolve
11. First reptiles evolve
12. Pangaea forms ( all continients were together)
13. First mammals evolve
14. First birds evolve
15. First flowering plants evolve
16. First primates evolve
17. Continents reach their present day formation
18. First apes evolve from primate lineage
19. Hominids evolve from the ape lineage ( great apes)
20. First early humans evolve from hominid lineage
21. Modern humans evolve from human lineage

stem cells

Stem cells are quite useful for researchers as they use them to produce other types of human cells. They're able repair or replace damaged tissues that were ravaged by diseases or injuries. Doctor's will take a piece of the patients leg to replace or repair a blocked artery of the heart, from this procedure they were able to extract progenitor cells from the veins.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8639548.stm

cloning

Cloning

There could just be a breakthrough of cloning humans, a doctor has made 14 embryos and transferred 11 of them into 4 different women’s womb. So this can be happening sooner than we had thought. Other scientists have done this but only as harvesting stem cells, but this doctor has implanted them into a woman’s womb, they say it may not be safe. It may work and may not work but this is a chance he is worth taking.

http://www.everydayhealth.com/publicsite/news/view.aspx?id=626328

Tour of the basics

What is DNA- There’s instructions of information for a living organism to grow and lives in the nucleus of every cell. Detailed plans for the building parts of the cell.

What is a gene- Instruction manual for the body. They give direction for the building of all proteins that function the body. They are made of DNA.

What is a chromosome- Each cell in our body contains a lot of DNA, if it is stretched out it stretches over three meters long. DNA is compacted unit called chromosomes. It starts as a double helix then wrapped around proteins, packed tightly to form a chromosome. There are 46 chromosomes in a human body, each parent gives a child 23 chromosomes.

What is a protein- They are machines that make the body function. They work as receptor proteins to distinguish pain by sending waves to the brain.

What is heredity- The passing of traits from parents to child is a basis of heredity, a person’s genes may specify a certain hair color. One complete set of chromosomes are given to the child from each of the parent.

Ch. 5-8 Practice Questions

1. Which regulatory mechanisms occur at the DNA-level, which occur at the protein-level? Gene level= DNA to condense for enzymes to get close to bases shielded by chemical groups

Protein prevents enzymes from doing job factors disable and degrade enzymes

2. How do acetylation, methylation, repressors, activators, and siRNA control gene expression? What role do inducers play? Acetylation-DNA causes it to relax and spread out; methylation- alters the gene expression pattern in cells repressors-genes are blocked when repressors bind to a regulatory site

3. What is an enhancer and how does it help control how much of a particular protein is made?

4. How do allosteric inhibition and competitive inhibition differ in the ways they accomplish feedback inhibition? decrease the protein's activity

5. What are the three phases of the cell cycle? What occurs at each phase?

G1 phase: primary growth phase. Cell does its housekeeping activities

M phase-Mitosis- (nuclear division) (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and Telophase).

C phase-Cytokinesis- (cytoplasmic division), daughter cells form

6. What are the four phases of mitosis? What occurs at each phase? Prophase- During prophase, the first phase of mitosis, the chromosomes condense and become visible when stained and viewed under a microscope. During the latter part of prophase, the nuclear membrane disappears and the newly formed spindle fibers attach to a region of the centromere called the kinetochore.

Metaphase- During metaphase, the spindle fibers move the replicated chromosomes to the middle of the cell where they line up in single file along the equatorial plane

Anaphase- During anaphase, the sister chromatids are "pulled" apart (separated) and move toward opposite poles of the cell. The separated chromatids are now called daughter chromosomes.

Telophase- During Telophase, the last phase of mitosis, the spindle apparatus disappears and nuclei reform around each set of daughter chromosomes. Cytokinesis also occurs during Telophase. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms and eventually divides the cytoplasm in half among the two daughter cells. In plant cells, cytokinesis is accomplished with the formation of the cell plate.

7. What are cell cycle checkpoints? Why are they important? Occur in which enzymes block cell cycle from progression until certain conditions are met.

8. What is apoptosis? What role does it play in the cell cycle?

9. What is the difference between chromatin and chromosomes? Relaxed, condensed

10. What is the role of the centromere? (What would happen without it?) keeps them together/ separate mixed up or lost

11. What is the difference between a chromatid and a chromosome? Centromere, kinetochore

12. What events must happen in order for two sister chromatids to separate from one another and move to opposite sides of the cell? (What happens at the centromere? What happens to the centromere? What is the role of the mitotic spindle?) completed; go away; pull in opposite directions

13. What would happen if two sister chromatids moved to the same side of the cell? Nondisjunction lead to cancer

14. What happens to the mitotic spindle after mitosis? Microfiber broken, copies itself back to sytoskelton

15. What are gametes? Where are they made in the body? How are they made? Sex cells; females- ovaries eggs; males testes sperm

16. What are the eight phases of meiosis? What occurs during each phase? How does meiosis differ from mitosis? Interphase- During this phase there is a duplication genetic material, DNA replication

Prophase I- the chromatin condenses into chromosomes the nuclear envelope disappears, and a spindle apparatus begins to form

Metaphase I- the tetrads line up on the center of the cell.

Anaphase I- the microtubules pull the pairs of homologous chromatids toward each pole

Telophase I- the nuclear envelope begins to reform and nucleoli reappear. The cell begins to split, forming a cleavage furrow in the middle.

Prophase II- During this phase there is a duplication genetic material, DNA replication

Metaphase II- the chromatin condenses into chromosomes the nuclear envelope disappears, and a spindle apparatus begins to form

Anaphase II- the microtubules pull the pairs of homologous chromatids toward each pole

Telophase II- the nuclear envelope begins to reform and nucleoli reappear. The cell begins to split, forming a cleavage furrow in the middle

17. How do crossing over and random assortment “mix up” genes so that children are genetically different from their parents? Increase number of different kinds of gametes an individual can produce, and increase variation

18. Why are insertion and deletion mutations usually more harmful than substitution mutations? Substitution single nucleotide change from normal DNA causing the entire frame to shift to the right by one base changing all subsequent codons

19. How does nondisjunction affect the genes present in an organism? Specifically, why does it cause deformities? Failure of members of homologous pair of chromosomes to separate from each other during meiosis, x & y are not the same genes

20. What “super powers” must a cell acquire to become cancerous? How does it acquire these powers? Activated oncogenes + inactivated tumor suppressor genes

21. Compare and contrast oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. What are they? How are they similar? How are they different? Oncogenes- normal pront-oncegenes undergo mutations and become oncegenes that become capable causing cancer. Tumor suppressor- carry instructions for producing proteins that suppress similar cancer developing; stop cell division not favorable

22. Why is cancer primarily a disease of old age? It develops over time

23. How do mutations cause genetic variation? Is this good or bad for the organism? It can cause a typographical error don’t occur often in same genes, not expected to occur in same various individuals; mostly bad but sometimes good

24. How do genetic diseases caused by point mutations differ from those caused by chromosomal mutations like nondisjunction? X & Y chromosomes don’t carry same genes, to many chromosomes can result in failure of homologous to separate meiosis

25. What causes spontaneous mutations? What causes induced mutations? Spontaneous- point mutations or disjunction incurred during mitosis

Induced- caused by mutagens(chemical, radiation)

26. How accurate is DNA replication? (That is, how often do point mutations occur?) not very accurate can cause many errors

27. What type of mutation is shown here? AGTGCCGTCAC
TCACGGCCAGTG

Frame shift

CH.5 & 8.1 practice questions

1. Why is DNA synthesis said to be “semiconservative”? Because it make a copy of itself

2. What role do DNA polymerase, DNA primase (a type of RNA polymerase),helicase, topoisomerase, RNase H, and ligase play in DNA replication?

Polymerase- builds complementary strands

DNA primase- creates RNA primer to start replication

RNA primer- degraded by RNase H and replaced with DNA nucleotides by DNA polymerase

DNA ligase connects fragment at start of new strand to end strand

Topisomerase unwinds DNA and then helicase breaks H bonds

3. What is the difference between how the leading strand and lagging strand arecopied during DNA replication? Why do they have to be synthesized differently in this fashion? Leading strand- transcribed in continuously in 5’ to 3’ direction

Lagging strand- transcribed in segments in 5’ to 3’ direction. Some functions perform differently

4. What would happen if insufficient RNase H were produced by a cell? What if insufficient ligase were produced by a cell?

Not enough RNase H then RNA primers would not be removed.

Not enough ligase, fragments would not be sealed together, both would have defective DNA

5. What are four key differences between DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase? (“they are difference molecules” doesn’t count as one!)

RNA doesn’t need a primer

RNA catalyzes bond between 3’ nucleotide and phosphate of incoming nucleotide

DNA catalyzes connection of nucleotides to form complementary DNA strand 5’-3’ direction

Transcription & translation

6. Compare and contrast codons and anticodons? Every 3 mRNA nucleotides is a codon specifies and amino acid, +RNA have an anticodon region that specifically binds to its codon.

7. What is alternative splicing? Why is it necessary in eukaryotes?Exons are coding regions, introns are removed, humans have 30,000 genes but produce 100,000 proteins, translation occurs in cytoplasm

8. During translation, what amino acid sequence would the following mRNA segment be converted into: AUGGACAUUGAACCG? Methionine , Aspartic acid, Isoleucine , Glutamic acid, Proline(MET-ASP-LLE-GLU-PRO)

9. How come there are only 20 amino acids when there are 64 different codons? It takes 3 codons to make up 1 amino acid, there are different combinations to make up an amino acid. There are 3 codons that stop

10. How come prokaryotes can both transcribe and translate a gene at the sametime, but eukaryotes cannot? In prokaryotes- termination occurs in different sites and translation can begin even before transcription has been terminated. In eukaryotes transcription continues past its site and terminates randomly.

Insulin Review Article Questions

1. In what journal did this article appear? When? Science, VOL 208 April 4, 1980
   
2. What is the primary purpose of this paper? To see if human DNA can be cloned or if theres similiarities between human DNA and other DNA containing organisms
   
3. What is the structural difference between insulin and proinsulin? Insulin: theres 2 polypeptide chains, Proinsulin: theres a larger polypeptide(preproinsulin) identified by invitro translation pf messenger(RNA)
   
4. What is complementary DNA (cDNA)? Total human insulinoma mRNA
   
5. What is meant by the "polyA tail" or "polyadenylation" of a gene? The A peptide most of amino acids, in receptor binding highest degree nucleotide and amino acid homology
   
6. What is meant by the statement that "insulin A and B chains are highly conserved"? The degree of homology of rat I, II and human amino acid sequences is matched by the overall nucleotide sequence homology
   
7. Which chain is most highly conserved? Chain A
   
8. What do the researchers believe is the purpose of the C chain? It helps the proinsulin molecule to assume its correct three-dimension conformation
   
9. Why does it make sense that the C chain is more variable (less highly conserved) than the A chain and B chain? C, binds them together and has no other function, it assists them
   
10. What do the researchers believe is the purpose of the pre-peptide (D chain)? Amino acid sequence in pre-peptide region must be important for insulin signal sequence activity
    
11. How does the human preproinsulin gene differ from rat preproinsulin (rat I and rat II)? The human preproinsulin mRNA extends 73 nucleotides beyond the translation termination codon, whereas both rat I and II mRNA 3' untranslated regions are about 20 nucleotides shorter.
    
12. What is the first codon in the coding region of the gene (at the start of the pre-peptide) and what is the first amino acid in the polypeptide? Adenylate, glutamic

CH. 4 Practice Questions

1. What happens to radiant energy that reaches earth from the sun? Most is radiated into space, but most is absorbed in the atmosphere.

2. Name four greenhouse gasses in addition to water vapor. Chlorofluorocarbons, methane, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide

3. How do water vapor and greenhouse gasses contribute to earth’s climate? Global warming

4. What are four sources of carbon dioxide? Aerobic respiration, pressure & heat from earth, human technology, volcanoes living organisms and other natural processes

5. Name three reservoirs for carbon dioxide in addition to the atmosphere. Fossil fuels, oceans, photosynthesis

6. What are fossil fuels? How are they made? Burned remains of ancient plants and microorganisms that have been transformed into coal, oil and natural gas carbons

7. Where do plants get the carbon they need to build sugars? Photosynthesis

8. Where do animals get the carbon they need to synthesize ATP? Plants

9. How has the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere changed over the past 100 years? What effect has this had on the planet’s overall climate? It has damaged the greenhouse effect and the weather is getting hotter

10. What is the difference in the chemical structure between ADP and ATP? When ATP loses a phosphate it becomes ADP

11. How does ATP transfer energy to parts of a cell? From movement of electrons that originated in food into its own bonds

12. What is the difference between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration? Oxygen

13. Where do glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, chemiosmosis, and the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis occur in cells? Glycolsis-pyruvates

14. What are the final products of glycolysis? (Don’t forget the energy carriers) 2 NADH & 2 ATP

15. What molecule enters the citric acid cycle? (Hint: it’s not pyruvic acid) glucose

16. What are the final products of the citric acid cycle? NADH

17. Where does the electron transport chain get energy from to move H+ ions across the membrane into the inner membrane space? The matrix of mitochondrion

18. Why is oxygen needed for aerobic respiration? To oxidize pyruvates

19. How is ATP generated via chemiosmosis? (Be sure to explain the role of ATP synthase in your answer) from movement H+ ions with oxidative phosphorylation of ADP to ATP resulting in 3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP per FADH2

20. How many ATP are produced per NADH? Per FADH2? 3, 2

21. How many totals ATP are produced from a single glucose molecule during Glycolysis followed by aerobic respiration? 2 ATP

22. What part of proteins can be metabolized for energy? Amino acids

23. What part of lipids can be metabolized for energy? Glycerol and fatty acids

24. What is the purpose of fermentation? What would happen to cells if they were somehow prevented from doing it? To recycle NAD+, no useable energy is produced. It leads to a buildup of Lactic Acid

25. What are stomata? What types of cells make them up? Oxygen gas released through adjustable microscopic structures that are located on surface of leaf

26. Where does the energy come from for the light-dependent reactions of Photosynthesis? Where in chloroplasts do these reactions occur? Biosynthesis of molecules and macromolecules, inner and outer membranes energy is captured

27. How do the energy carrier molecules synthesized during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis compare to those synthesized during cellular respiration? From sunlight

28. Where in chloroplasts are glucose molecules synthesized? What process is responsible for their synthesis? In the Stoma, Calvin cycle

29. Why is water necessary for photosynthesis? Why is carbon dioxide necessary? Why is sunlight necessary? To split into 2 H+ ions and a single oxygen atom it then releases 2 electrons, sunlight excites chlorophyll molecule and electrons and moves to higher energy levels

30. How are rubisco and oxaloacetate similar? Both break down carbon dioxide and produce ATP

31. What is transpiration? Exchange of gases, water can move out of plant through stomata opening

32. Which types of plants are most vulnerable to photorespiration? Why? C3 plants, they prevent carbon dioxide from entering and photosynthesis declines

33. Why are C3 plants better adapted to cool, shady environments while C4 plants are better adapted to hot, sunny environments? C3 high temps reduce the photosynthesis plants close their stomata to reduce the rate of water lost, C4 carry an extra enzyme which avoids photorespiration and continues to make sugars

34. Why is growth limited in CAM plants? Amount of carbon dioxide stored in acid during the night is limited, they use it all up during the day so they cant perform anymore photosynthesis

35. How does deforestation contribute to global warming? With more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

36. What role does the United States play in global warming? ¼ of carbon dioxide by burning fossil fuels